![]() This calls for cross-disciplinary study approaches, addressing the complexity of the ecotone regarding both causal background and biogeographic diversity. However, high numbers of wild or domestic mammalian herbivores may challenge the carrying capacity of treeline ecotone areas at the same time as they preserve an open pasture character. Ecotone is a junction between two or more diverse ecosystems. Mass outbreaks of leaf-eating insects, for example, usually affect comparatively large forested areas whereas mammalian herbivores and birds have more local impact. Usually, high biodiversity is witnessed in Ecotones. Native animals may cause widespread or local disturbances in treeline ecotone areas. Subsequently changed site conditions influence plant−plant interactions, favoring some species and disfavoring others, and plant−animal interactions. Climate change together with changing tree cover may influence snow cover, moisture regime, and nutrient conditions. The recent decline in pastoral use of many European treeline areas often strongly influences plant diversity and re-growth of trees and other woody species. Historical legacy plays an important role in this respect, and human impacts are particularly important. of krummholz conifer communities in the alpine-treeline ecotone (ATE). Climate change is a driving factor in treeline ecotone change, including physiognomic structure and biodiversity, although the effects of climate and other factors often overlap. Community structure, biodiversity, and ecosystem services in treeline whitebark. While at continent-wide to global scales, the ecotone position is largely controlled by heat deficiency, it depends on a multitude of partly interacting abiotic and biotic factors other than climate at smaller scales. In northernmost Europe, mountain birch prevails, while conifers (spruce, pine, larch) are the dominating species further south. To measure the biodiversity across the ecotone pine forest-Mediterranean open shrubland in degraded Mediterranean areas, and to understand the changes. In this paper, we discuss the biodiversity in various trophic levels in treeline ecotones throughout Europe, with particular focus on recent changes in land use and climate in northern and central mountains. treeline ecotones, are characterized by great regional variety. Transition zones between mountain forests and treeless tundra, i.e.
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